categories related

Országok listájaHungaryMiskolci EgyetemBölcsészettudományi KarAnglisztikaLeíró NyelvtanJegyzetekcategories related

Categories related to the verb:
time and tense


Time is universal, non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present and future; by tense we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. Aspect concerns the manner in which the verbal action is experienced or regarded (for example a completed or in progress), while mood relates the verbal action to such conditions as certainty, obligation, necessity, possibility (Quirk and Greenbaum 1985:40). Tense is a frequent category in the languages of the world but is far from universal, Chinese being an example of a language which lacks tense entirely (Trask 1999:276).

In the real world a state-of-affairs exists in space and time. Objective time as one of the two forms of existence of matter is characterised by the following attributes: its infinitive extension, unidimensionality (linearity) and irreversibility of its course, and divisibility into an infinite number of segments of any size (which demonstrates the dialectical contradiction of continuity and discontinuity).

The divisibility of time allows establishing time systems:

Physical/Chronometric time (second Calendar (day Historical time (ancient times, the Middle Ages, the new age, the pre-Columbian age/time)
Geological time (recent, Pleistocene, Pliocene, Miocene)

These time systems provide reference points (indices) the states-of-affairs can be related to.

For practical purposes time can be graphically illustrated as a limitless straight line on which the states-of-affairs occupy their definite positions:


Figure 1 The division of time


t1 = now (moment of speaking)

objective time/time line




past present future
(time) (time) (time)



For the speaker the moment of speaking is the primary index of orientation (t1) in time. It subdivides the time experienced into three segments. The moment of speaking itself and a variable timespan including it are experienced as present (in an act of direct perception). The segment preceding the moment of speaking is experienced as past (in an act of recollection), the segment following the moment of speaking as future (in an act of anticipation). (Giering et al. 1984:145)

This is an interpretation of past, present and future on a referential level. But in relating this view of time to language and, more precisely, to the meaning of verbs, it is useful to reformulate the threefold distinction such that ‘present’ is defined in an inclusive rather than in an exclusive way: something is defined as ‘present’ if it has existence at the present moment, allowing for the possibility that its existence may also stretch into the past and into the future. Hence Paris stands on the River Seine may be correctly said to describe a ‘present’ state of affairs, even though this state of affairs has also obtained for numerous centuries in the past, and may well exist for an indefinite period in the future (Quirk et al. 1991:175-6):


Figure 2 Present Tense as general time (Quirk et al. 1991:176)


now

time

past time future time

(preceding now) (following now)

present time

(including now)
Paris stands on the River Seine.




What anyone can find most typically is the choice of the speech situation as the reference point, i. e. the present moment (or time), the present spot (for space) and the speaker and hearer (for person). As far as tense is concerned, then, the reference point is typically the present moment and tense locate situations either at the same time as the present moment (or perhaps including the present moment) or prior to the present moment or subsequent to the present moment, with further potential categories of degrees of remoteness from the present moment are distinguished grammatically. A system which relates entities to a reference point is termed a deictic system and we can therefore say that tense is deictic (Comrie 1993:14).

Dividing time into past, present and future is not the only possible process. Moreover, even in English we can find only two tense forms: write(s), wrote. So tense admits of categorisation in many different ways. One might grant that the directionality of time is given nature but this may or may not be relevant to the analysis of tense in particular languages. Various categorisations are possible. The ‘theoretical zero point’ (the ‘now’ of utterance) might be included with either ‘past’ or ‘future’ to yield, on the one hand, a dichotomy between ‘future’ and ‘non-future’, or, on the other hand, a dichotomy between ‘past’ and ‘non-past’. A different dichotomy (based on the distinction of ‘now’ and ‘not-now’ without reference to the directionality of time — examples just in English: now and then!) could be ‘present’ versus ‘non-present’. Other possible categorisations might depend upon the notion of ‘proximity’ (with or without reference to directionality): e. g. a dichotomy of ‘proximate’ versus ‘non-proximate’ (with respect to time of utterance), a trichotomy of ‘now’ versus ‘proximate’ versus ‘remote’. And these distinctions might be combined in various ways and not merely as suggested in traditional grammar books (Lyons 1992:305-6).

The typical deictic adverbs and pronouns referring to the spatial and temporal situation and the participants of the situation are here, now, I and you, respectively. As now means ‘the point of time we are talking at’, we can draw the conclusion that present tense in the narrower sense is lexicalised (Comrie 1993:10), i. e. the two examples can be distinguished from a semantic point of view:

The Browns live in London.
The Browns now live in London.

While the Simple Present Tense in (i) expresses general time as depicted in Figure 2, namely the Browns’ address is permanent, it is evident that (ii) can be replaced with

(iii) The Browns are living in London,

which gives evidence for the same function as Present Continuous Tense has. (We need not add to the explanation that both (ii) and (iii) imply that London is a temporary address the Browns live at.)

Not only can Present Tense be lexicalised but also grammaticalised (Comrie 1993:10), i. e. the verb forms of walk and walks are grammatical ones of Present Tense in contrast with walked as that of Past Tense. While Present Tense forms are unmarked from the point of view of tense, the Past Tense forms are marked by -ed: work-Ø-Ø, work-Ø-s, work-ed-Ø.

English, unlike many other languages, does not have a separate verb (i. e. a marked verb) form for the future. Consequently, there is no distinct future tense in English, even though there are, of course, many different ways in which we can talk about the future time :


The parcel will arrive tomorrow. (modal auxiliary will)
The parcel is going to arrive tomorrow. (be going to)
The parcel is arriving tomorrow. (present progressive)
The parcel arrives tomorrow. (simple present)
The parcel will be arriving tomorrow. (modal auxiliary will + progressive aspect)






Bibliography

Comrie 1993
Comrie, Bernard. Tense. Reprinted. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1993, ©1985. x, 139 p. : ill. ; 22.7 cm (Cambridge textbooks in linguistics) ISBN 0-521-28138-5

Giering et al. 1984
Giering, Dieter et al. English grammar : a university handbook. 4., unveränderte Auflage. VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1984. 406 S. : ill. ; 24,6 cm ISBN ---

Lyons 1992
Lyons, John. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. Reprinted. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1992, ©1968. vii, 519 p. : ill. ; … cm ISBN 0-521-09510-7

Quirk and Greenbaum 1985
Quirk, Randolph and Greenbaum, Sidney. A university grammar of English. 14th impression. Harlow : Longman, 1985. xi, 484 p. : ill. ; 22.7 cm ISBN 0-582-55207-9

Quirk et al. 1991
Quirk, R. , et al. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. 9th impression. London ; New York: Longman, 1991, ©1985. 1779 p. : ill. ; 25.2 cm ISBN 0-582-51734-6

Trask 1999
Trask, R. L. A dictionary of grammatical terms and linguistics. Reprinted. London ; New York : Routledge, 1999, ©1993. xv, 335 p. : ill. ; 21.7 cm ISBN 0-435-08628-0


Webliography






Chronometric systems serve to define states-of-affairs with regard to their position on the time line, i. e. with regard to their duration, frequency and chronological order. In English, this kind of chronological timing is expressed by temporal phrases with explicit or implicit date, indicating a point of time, e. g. at 9 o’clock, in 1978, a timespan, e. g. from 8 to 10, during the 30s, over a very long time, or frequency, e. g. every second day, often.










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